4 Conclusion

Culture is just one perspective that can help us to understand more about a business. In this Unit we saw how the concept of culture developed from research into differences between cultures at a national level. Many cultural elements of a business are not obvious, but there have been some attempts in the academic literature to develop definitions and identify influencing factors. It is possible to see, or ‘feel’, that one business is different from another, and that this involves more than just how it presents itself to the outside world. Business values and accepted ways of doing things are often reflected in a business's socialisation programmes.

3 Factors influencing culture

Where the culture of a business comes from, and how it develops, is the subject of much discussion within business studies. Every commentator seems to have their own list of key factors. One example is by Drennan (1992), who proposes twelve key factors that shape the culture of a business. These are:

1. the influence of a dominant leader – the vision, management style and personality of the founder or leader in a business often has a significant influence on the values that the business tries to promote;
   


2. the history and tradition of the business – how things have always been done (and why);
   


3. the type of technology used by the business and the types of goods and/or services it produces;
   


4. which industry or sector the business is in, and how much and what type of competition it faces;
   


5. the customers of the business – who they are and what they expect;
   


6. company expectations – based to a large extent on past performance;
   


7. the types of information and control systems used;
   


8. the legislation and wider business environment;
   


9. the procedures and policies within the business – ever-evolving, but often a good indicator of underlying values;
   


10. the reward systems and the measurement of performance;
    


11. how the business is organised and resourced;
    


12. goals, values and beliefs – reflected in objects, actions and language, that is, in Trice and Beyer's symbols.
    

It could be argued that some of the twelve factors in Drennan's list are integral parts of the culture of a business rather than influences that shape it. You may, or may not, agree with this list, and it might be worth participating in a unit Forum discussion on the helpfulness of such lists. What lists such as this do show us, however, is that culture in business, as in society, pervades every aspect of its operations.

2 Definitions of organisational culture: 2.1 Culture as socialisation

The cultural perspective has become popular in business studies because it offers a way of explaining performance and understanding difference. It is only one way of analysing business, but it is an interesting one as it focuses particularly on the insider point of view, or on what it is ‘really’ like to work in an organisation. There have been many definitions of organisational culture. One definition that is often cited is:

Culture is a pattern of beliefs and expectations shared by the organisational members. These beliefs and expectations produce norms that powerfully shape the behaviour of individuals and groups within the organisation.
(Schwartz and Davis, 1981, p. 33)

Another central idea about organisational culture is that it has to be learnt by newcomers and that it takes time to understand. The term socialisation is sometimes used to describe how new employees learn the less obvious rules about what is acceptable and what is not. An example of socialisation into a business is provided in Example 2.

'After the merger, you may notice a few changes in our corporate culture.'

Long description

Example 2

First opened in 1955 in Anaheim, California, Disneyland has been a consistent money maker for Walt Disney Enterprises. Most of those who apply for work at Disneyland are aware that if accepted on to the payroll they will be expected to conform to the large number of rules that are supposed to guarantee that the theme park is the ‘Happiest Place on Earth’. In fact, ride operators and other hourly paid employees are a well-screened and fairly homogeneous group: white males and females, generally in their early twenties, of above average height, without facial blemish, and radiating good health. While ethnic minorities are employed, apart from their colour they tend to be close copies of the standard Disneyland employee.
Once in paid employment new recruits are enrolled at the University of Disneyland where they undergo a forty-hour apprenticeship programme. In the classroom employees learn about the history and philosophy of Disneyland, and the regulations and procedures that govern work there. Some of the most important of these concern the use of language. For example, employees are generally on first name terms, customers must be referred to as ‘guests’, rides are called ‘attractions’ and Disneyland itself is a ‘park’ not an amusement centre. At work employees are encouraged to think of themselves as ‘back-stage’, ‘on-stage’, and ‘staging’ and their uniforms as ‘costumes’. Classroom instruction also covers approved responses to probable questions ride operators will face from customers, and how to summon assistance when accidents (always called ‘incidents’) arise or particularly difficult ‘guests’ cannot be mollified. The curriculum includes the inculcation of particular Disneyland values like ‘the customer is king’ and ‘everyone is a child at heart when at Disneyland’. Great emphasis is also placed on checklists of appearance standards that must be learned, and which ban the wearing of facial hair, fancy jewellery or more than very modest amounts of make-up. Motivation levels are hyped by inspirational films, and pep talks exhort employees to be happy and cheerful while ‘onstage’. What is more, all relevant essential information is contained in a training manual, so no one can forget.
Informal socialisation mechanisms are equally well developed. New recruits soon learn that the job they are assigned to, the costume they are allocated, and the area of the park in which they work, determine their social status. Generally speaking the more highly skilled the work and glamorous the costume, the higher an individual's status. Employees also learn that there are strict limits to which the company line has to be taken seriously, and there is much satirical banter about the artificiality of Disneyland. Good performance on-stage is, however, a necessity. Individuals soon realise that supervisors are not just there to help them, but to monitor and evaluate their performance: most old hands can be counted on to relate tales of employees who have been fired for taking too long a break, not wearing part of the official uniform, or providing longer than usual rides. At the same time employees are taught by their peers how to get back at misbehaving ‘guests’ by tightening seat belts, slamming on the brakes unexpectedly, and drenching those standing on the banks of rivers. On the downside, although pranks are rarely played on newcomers, all are carefully scrutinised, and those deemed not to ‘fit’ are the subject of gossip and/or ostracism.
The formal and informal socialisation procedures are not just fascinating to observe but commercially effective. Employees are generally willing to play the roles expected of them with good humour and kindly smiles, and this despite the fact that Disneyland does not pay well, the jobs require minimal intelligence and supervision is strict. Enculturation at Disneyland is thus a major feat of social engineering.

(Source: Adapted from Van Maanen, 1991, cited in Brown, 1995, p. 55)

2.2 Symbols within business

How have academics and managers attempted to diagnose these largely hidden aspects of business? One well-known example is provided by Trice and Beyer (1984), who concentrated on the idea of there being symbols within a business. They divided these into, first, high-level symbols, which are the more obvious ones such as company buildings and logos, and, second, low-level symbols. They suggested four categories of low-level symbols: practices, communications, physical forms and a common language. These are explained below.

• Practices These are the rites, rituals and ceremonies of the business. These can take many forms, and would include the annual office party, employee awards and inter-site competitions.
  


• Communications These are the stories, myths and slogans that are circulated in the business. Stories about notable events in the past tend to become part of the culture of the business and can influence behaviour. How the business started, for example, or a period of particular success, can say something about preferred ways of performing and goals to aim for.
  


• Physical forms These include location, open plan or individual offices, types of eating areas, business suits or casual attire, flipcharts or whiteboards, and office furniture. For an interesting example go to the Google website and look at ‘Inside Google’ and ‘Culture’ in the 'Jobs at Google' section of the ‘About Google’ area to see images of the culture and workplace at Google, the international internet search business. Also interesting are the ‘Top 10 reasons to work at Google’.
  


• A common language Jargon is common to many businesses. It is a convenient shorthand form of communication, but it also affects behaviour. Disney employees are ‘cast members’, while McDonald's employees are ‘crew members’. The Open University is rife with acronyms: TMAs (Tutor Marked Assignments), SEPs (Specimen Exam Papers), course codes like B120, and so on. This might suggest a rather technical and closed culture, but ‘open and equal’, the University's motto, is, in the experience of many of the staff, reflected throughout its business practices and values.
  

1.2 Working abroad

The extract from a newspaper article in Example 1 provides insight into the problems of working abroad.

Example 1

Working abroad is often considered the chance of a lifetime. Living and working in a foreign country with all expenses paid; what more could anyone want?
In a surprising number of cases the answer is actually: ‘Quite a lot’. Finding yourself adrift in a different culture might seem exciting when you're on holiday, but it's an entirely different proposition when you're living and working. Codes of business practice may be radically different and the expatriate lifestyle can be lonely… yet many multinational companies have made little effort to prepare their employees for the shock.

The advertising giant J Walter Thompson is a case in point. ‘We call in global relocation specialists to handle the practicalities of moving home and children's education,’ says a company spokesman. ‘But most other things we leave to the individual. The people we send abroad are experienced international businessmen and women and we expect them to understand different cultural milieus. There will always be the odd problem but we would hope that these could be dealt with by our local staff.’…
But even with strong and knowledgeable support in the new country Chris Crosby, managing director of TMA, a company that specialises in corporate cross-cultural changes, believes more is required.
‘Most people can identify explicit differences, such as clothing and food, which separate their culture from another and have little difficulty in adapting,’ he says. ‘More implicit differences are far harder to deal with. In the UK a business meeting is perceived as a place where a plan of action will be formulated and implemented. In other cultures, it is often just a forum for discussion. If you go abroad with the UK model as a preconception you might think that a meeting had been a disaster when it hadn't.’
‘Rather than getting people to adopt a different culture than their own, you have to help them adapt their own style to a new culture. Critical to this is understanding one's own culture. Without examining our own underlying perceptions it is unlikely we will get to grips with another,’ Mr. Crosby says.
But people are unpredictable and not all cross-cultural situations are cut and dried; many are ambiguous, so a key element of successful working practice is to concentrate on building relationships. ‘Your job is to do the right thing for the business,’ he says firmly. You need to be clear about non-negotiables, ethically and in terms of business operations.’

(Source: Crace, 2000)

Hofstede's work has had a major influence on how we think about the cultures of businesses in different countries. We understand that people expect different things and operate in different ways in business and other organisations because of underlying societal values. Hofstede's work provides valuable insights into what we might expect when we do business in other places; this is important information in a world of increasing globalisation. Of course, there are always exceptions to the rule. Some businesses succeed because of their very ‘difference’: individuals are often attracted to work for businesses that seem ‘different’, and some customers prefer to shop there.

‘See? That means "What do you clowns want?"’

Activity 2

0 hours 10 minutes

Purpose: to reinforce understanding of culture in business.
Task: can you think of any examples where a business you have worked for, or heard about, has tried to operate in a slightly different way from what you would expect? List any examples you can think of and make some notes on how it looked or felt different, and why.

Discussion

Feedback

The examples we thought of were the small, low-cost airlines which began to undercut the prices and operations of the large national airlines in the 1990s. They changed the whole way in which people think about international travel and make travel arrangements. Another example is John Lewis, the UK retail group, which calls all its employees ‘partners’; all its employees have shares in the business.
This simple exercise was intended to get you to think about the less obvious things that make a business ‘feel’ different, and why potential customers and employees may or may not be attracted to them.

In the next section we begin to explore some academic definitions of this ‘slippery’ concept of culture at work.

1 National cultures: 1.1 Hofstede's five Cultural Dimensions

A series of perspectives that we might use to achieve a different insight into business was introduced by Morgan (1986) in his book entitled Images of an Organization. One of these was the business as a culture, a type of micro-society where people work and ‘live’ together on a daily basis, with certain rules and understandings about what is acceptable and what is not. The idea of a business having a culture was developed from the work of Hofstede on national cultures (1980). His research focused on ways of measuring national culture and how these ‘measures’ might work differently in different contexts. The cultural values that are important in a national culture, he suggested, could be reflected in the way businesses within that country are operated and organised.
Hofstede's five dimensions (he developed four in 1980, then added a fifth in 1991) were:
Power distance This concerns the extent to which less powerful members of organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. National cultures that demonstrated what Hofstede called a ‘low power distance’ are ones in which there is a concern to minimise inequalities. Hofstede included Sweden and New Zealand as examples of this. In general, Hofstede found that Latin American and Latin European (France and Spain) countries had higher power distance scores. The less powerful in these societies tend to look to those with power to make decisions, and inequalities within society are more acceptable. This is represented by a tendency for the centralisation of power and the subordination of those with less power within businesses.
Individualism/collectivism In an individualistic society, people are expected to look after themselves and their families. In the case of business this is reflected in, for example, employment contracts based on hiring and firing. Two examples of countries with high scores on this dimension were Australia and Canada. In more collective societies, people are more concerned for others and the culture is based around more cohesive groups, such as the family, which offer protection in exchange for loyalty. This tendency is reflected in businesses as well as elsewhere in society. Hofstede cited Ecuador and Indonesia as examples of more collective societies.

Masculinity/femininity This refers to the degree to which gender roles are distinct and adhered to within a society. In high femininity societies, social gender roles overlap, with both men and women valuing ‘feminine’ qualities such as modesty, intuition and quality of life above the more traditionally ‘masculine’ qualities of aggression and competition. Hofstede's research suggested that Denmark and the Netherlands were more feminine cultures, while many other Western countries exhibited more masculine values. The USA was ranked fifteenth out of 53 nations on this masculinity score. Japan, the UK and West Germany also scored highly on masculine values.
Uncertainty avoidance This concerns the extent to which the members of a society feel threatened by uncertain and unknown situations. Hofstede suggested that Jamaica and Singapore were relatively low uncertainty avoidance cultures, where precision and punctuality are less important, innovation is encouraged and people are motivated by being esteemed by, or belonging to, others above other things. High uncertainty avoidance scores mean that there is a fear of ambiguous situations, a preference for being busy and being precise and punctual. Relatively high scores on this dimension were found for Latin American and Latin European countries, Japan and South Korea.
Confucian/dynamism This refers to the extent to which long-termism or short-termism appears to be the dominant approach. Long-termism stresses perseverance and being sparing with resources. Short-termism, in Hofstede's analysis, involves a greater emphasis on quick results. Hofstede found that the USA tended towards short-termism, while the Netherlands was the most long-termist European nation, ranked tenth out of 23 countries surveyed.
These differences between national cultures are based in deep-rooted values and so are largely implicit rather than openly acknowledged. They create all sorts of problems for employees in multinational companies who go to work abroad, or for representatives doing business with suppliers or customers in other countries. We can use the simple activity below to explore some of these differences.

Activity 1

0 hours 10 minutes

Purpose: to consider business practices in different cultural contexts.
Task: consider each item in the following list. In your country's culture, is this behaviour considered to be acceptable or not?

• Paying an agent for an introduction to a business opportunity.
  


• Paying a government agent for bureaucratic procedures to be bypassed or speeded up.
  


• Making a copy of a product that you have seen at an international trade fair.
  


• Paying people to find loopholes in tax laws.
  


• Giving gifts to the purchasing manager in a large business organisation.
  


• Charging high interest rates for unsecured loans to individuals.
  
  

  Discussion

  If you and I came from different cultures, we would give different answers here. You might think some of these behaviours were inappropriate or unethical, but I might think you were wrong. In either of our countries, these business behaviours could be against the law, but, as a visitor, we might not know that, nor realise that we were offending the people with whom we were attempting to do business.
  
  

Business cultures

Why are we studying ‘business cultures’? Culture is a metaphor which can be used to explore the identity of a business. It is about how others see the business, but also how the individuals who work there understand it. Culture offers us a powerful insight into the business and what it is like to work within it.

An introduction to business cultures: Introduction

Culture is just one perspective that can help us to understand more about a business. 'Business culture' is not just about how others see a business, but also about how the individuals within an organisation understand it. In this unit we explore how the concept of culture developed from research into differences between cultures at a national level. It is possible to see, or ‘feel’, that one business is different from another, and that this involves more than just how it presents itself to the outside world.